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Class 12 Chemistry

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Class 12 Chemistry Video Lectures

  • Chapter 1 – The Solid State Lecture 1
    33:24
  • Chapter 1 – The Solid State Lecture 2
    27:31
  • Chapter 2 – P Block Elements Lecture 1(Inorganic Chemistry)
    31:59
  • Chapter 2 – P Block Elements Lecture 2(Inorganic Chemistry)
    25:39
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 3(Inorganic Chemistry)
    30:46
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 4(Inorganic Chemistry)
    32:12
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 5(Inorganic Chemistry)
    29:25
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 6(Inorganic Chemistry)
    28:59
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 7(Inorganic Chemistry)
    31:01
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 8(Inorganic Chemistry)
    31:10
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 9(Inorganic Chemistry)
    27:37
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 10(Inorganic Chemistry)
    30:05
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 11(Inorganic Chemistry)
    27:51
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 12(Inorganic Chemistry)
    30:20
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 13(Inorganic Chemistry)
    29:33
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 14(Inorganic Chemistry)
    30:19
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 15(Inorganic Chemistry)
    28:06
  • Chapter 2 – P Block elements Lecture 16(Inorganic Chemistry)
    29:43
  • Chapter 3 – Electrochemistry Lecture 1
    00:00
  • Chapter 3 – Electrochemistry Lecture 2
    36:54
  • Chapter 3 – Electrochemistry Lecture 3
    00:00
  • Chapter 3 – Electrochemistry Lecture 4
    31:38
  • Chapter 3 – Electrochemistry Lecture 5
    32:48
  • Chapter 3 – Electrochemistry Lecture 6
    31:32
  • Chapter 3 – Electrochemistry Lecture 7
    29:00
  • Chapter 4 – Chemical Kinetics Lecture 1
    34:22
  • Chapter 4 – Chemical Kinetics Lecture 2
    34:12
  • Chapter 4 – Chemical Kinetics Lecture 3
    30:05
  • Chapter 4 – Chemical Kinetics Lecture 4
    32:41
  • Chapter 4 – Chemical Kinetics lecture 5
    30:17
  • Chapter 4 – Chemical Kinetics Lecture 6
    29:53
  • Chapter 4 – Chemical Kinetics Lecture 7
    24:23
  • Chapter 5 – Surface Chemistry Lecture 1
    29:23
  • Chapter 5 – Surface Chemistry Lecture 2
    34:13
  • Chapter 5 – Surface Chemistry Lecture 3
    31:04
  • Chapter 5 – Surface Chemistry Lecture 4
    33:41
  • Chapter 6 – General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements Lecture 1
    32:29
  • Chapter 6 – General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements Lecture 2
    30:46
  • Chapter 6 – General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements Lecture 3
    29:05
  • Chapter 6 – General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements Lecture 4
    31:06
  • Chapter 6 – General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements Lecture 5
    31:23
  • Chapter 8 – The D Block Elements Lecture 1
    31:34
  • Chapter 8 – The D Block Elements Lecture 2
    29:41
  • Chapter 8 – The D Block Elements Lecture 3
    30:04
  • Chapter 8 – The D Block Elements Lecture 4
    31:24
  • Chapter 8 – The D Block Elements Lecture 5
    29:18

Organic Chemistry Video Lectures

Exam Notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry Chapter – The Solid State
The NCERT Class 12 Chemistry chapter on "The Solid State" covers various aspects of solids, their properties, and structures: Characteristics of Solids Definite Volume, Shape, and Mass: Due to the short distance and strong interactions between particles. Intermolecular Distances and Forces: Short distances and strong intermolecular forces. Fixed Particle Positions: Particles have fixed positions and can only oscillate about their mean positions. Incompressibility and Rigidity: Solids are incompressible and rigid​​. Types of Solids Amorphous and Crystalline Solids: Amorphous solids have short-range order and no sharp melting point, while crystalline solids have long-range order and sharp melting points​​. Classification of Crystalline Solids: Based on particle interactions, classified into ionic, covalent or network, molecular, and metallic solids​​. Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells Unit Cell: The smallest repeating unit in a crystal lattice. Types of Unit Cells: Primitive cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic unit cells​​. Crystal Lattice Characteristics: Lattice points representing atoms, molecules, or ions, joined by straight lines to depict the geometry of the lattice​​. Close Packing in Solids One-Dimensional Packing: Spheres arranged in a row. Two-Dimensional Packing: Stacked rows forming a pattern. Three-Dimensional Packing: Forms either square close-packed or hexagonal close-packed layers​​​​​​. Voids and Packing Efficiency Voids in Solids: Tetrahedral and octahedral voids representing gaps between particles. Packing Efficiency: The percentage of space filled by particles, with different efficiencies for hcp, ccp, body-centered cubic, and simple cubic lattices​​​​​​. Calculation of Density Density Calculation: Using the number of atoms, mass of each atom, and the volume of the unit cell, density can be calculated​​. Defects in Solids Point and Line Defects: Irregularities from ideal arrangement, either around a point or an atom (point defects) or in entire rows of lattice points (line defects)​​. Electrical and Magnetic Properties Conductivity: Classification based on conductivity into conductors, insulators, and semiconductors​​. This chapter offers a comprehensive understanding of the solid state, crucial for advanced studies in materials science, crystallography, and various applications in chemistry and physics.

Exam Notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry Chapter – P Block Elements
The NCERT Class 12 Chemistry chapter on "The p-Block Elements" covers the elements in groups 13 to 18 of the periodic table. Here's a comprehensive summary: General Characteristics p-Block Elements: These elements have a general electronic configuration of ns²np¹-⁶. They are characterized by the presence of valence electrons in the p-orbital​​. Inert Pair Effect: The tendency of ns² electron pair to participate less in bond formation with an increase in atomic size. This leads to a decrease in the stability of the higher oxidation states in a group​​. Group 15 Elements (Nitrogen Family) Elements: Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), and Bismuth (Bi). Atomic and Ionic Radii: Increase down the group; covalent radii increase significantly from N to P. Ionization Energy: Decreases down the group; higher than group 14 and 16 elements due to stable half-filled p-orbitals. Allotropy: All elements except nitrogen show allotropy. Oxidation States: Common states are +3, +5, and –3; the stability of +5 decreases, while +3 increases down the group due to the inert pair effect​​. Reactivity Towards: Hydrogen: Form trihydrides; stability decreases down the group​​. Oxygen: Form trioxides and pentoxides; acidic character decreases and basicity increases down the group​​. Halogen: Form trihalides (covalent) and pentahalides (Lewis acids)​​. Metals: React to form binary compounds in –3 oxidation state​​. Nitrogen Compounds Dinitrogen (N₂): Colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, chemically unreactive at ordinary temperatures due to a strong triple bond​​. Ammonia (NH₃): Trigonal pyramidal molecule with nitrogen at the apex; prepared via Haber's process​​. Nitric Acid (HNO₃): Prepared using the Ostwald process; strong oxidizing agent​​. Phosphorus Allotropes: White phosphorus (P₄ tetrahedra, very reactive), red phosphorus (polymeric, less reactive), and black phosphorus (crystalline forms)​​​​​​. Phosphine (PH₃): Colorless, highly poisonous gas​​. Chlorides of Phosphorus: Phosphorus trichloride (PCl₃, pyramidal shape) and phosphorus pentachloride (PCl₅, trigonal bipyramidal shape)​​​​. Group 16 Elements Oxidation States: -2, +2, +4, +6; the stability of -2 decreases and +4 increases down the group. Ionization Enthalpy: Lower than group 15 due to stable half-filled p-orbitals; decreases down the group​​​​. Electron Gain Enthalpy: Decreases down the group; oxygen has less negative than sulfur due to small size​​. Melting and Boiling Points: Increase with atomic number; oxygen has much lower points than sulfur​​. Reactivity with Hydrogen: Forms hydrides with bent shape​​. Group 17 Elements (Halogens) Properties: Small atomic radii, high ionization enthalpy, high electronegativity, maximum negative electron gain enthalpy, colored, strong oxidizing agents. Reactivity with Hydrogen: Form hydrogen halides; HF < HCl < HBr < HI in terms of acidic strength and stability​​. Reactivity with Metals: Form halides, with ionic character decreasing from fluoride to iodide​​. Interhalogen Compounds: Binary compounds of two different halogen atoms, more reactive than halogens​​. Oxoacids of Halogens: Fluorine forms only one oxoacid (HOF) due to high electronegativity​​. Group 18 Elements (Noble Gases) Properties: Very high ionization enthalpy, large atomic radii, large electron gain enthalpy, low melting and boiling points due to weak dispersion forces​​. Shapes of Compounds: Vary from linear to distorted octahedral; no true compounds of He, Ne, and Ar are known​​. These topics provide a detailed understanding of the properties, reactivity, and compounds of p-block elements, which are crucial in both inorganic chemistry and practical applications.

Exam Notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry Chapter – Electrochemistry
The NCERT Class 12 Chemistry chapter on Electrochemistry covers various fundamental concepts, including the relationship between electrical and chemical energies, types of electrochemical cells, and important principles governing electrochemistry: Electrochemistry: This branch deals with the conversion between electrical and chemical energy. It involves electrochemical cells, divided into two types - electrolytic cells and galvanic cells​​. Galvanic Cells: Comprising two half cells, each with an electrolytic solution and a metallic electrode. The anode experiences oxidation, and the cathode undergoes reduction. These cells are connected by a salt bridge or a porous pot​​. Electromotive Force (emf): The potential difference between electrodes in a cell, causing current flow, is termed electromotive force or emf. The standard electrode potentials of elements can be arranged in an electrochemical series​​. Gibbs Free Energy and emf: The relationship between Gibbs free energy change ( Δ G ∘ ΔG ∘ ) and emf is given by Δ G ∘ = − n F E cell ∘ ΔG ∘ =−nFE cell ∘ ​ , where E cell ∘ E cell ∘ ​ is the standard emf of the cell, n n is the number of moles of electrons exchanged, and F F is Faraday's constant​​. Conductance and Resistance: These concepts relate to the flow of electrical current through materials. Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, and specific conductance is defined as the conductance of a solution in a cell with electrodes one unit distance apart​​. Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis: These laws describe the amount of substance deposited or liberated at an electrode in relation to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte​​. Batteries: The chapter discusses different types of batteries, including primary (non-rechargeable) and secondary (rechargeable) batteries, and their functioning principles​​. Fuel Cells and Corrosion: Fuel cells directly convert the energy from fuel combustion into electrical energy, while corrosion of metals is explained as an electrochemical process​​. Understanding these concepts is crucial for comprehending the interactions between electrical and chemical processes, which have significant practical applications in various technological and industrial fields.

Exam Notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry Chapter – Chemical Kinetics
The NCERT Class 12 Chemistry chapter on "Chemical Kinetics" covers the following key concepts: Definition: Chemical kinetics is the study of the rate of chemical reactions, the factors affecting it, and the mechanism of reaction. Rate of Reaction: It's the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time, expressed in mol L^{-1}s^{-1}. Rate Law and Order of Reaction: The rate law expresses the relationship between the reaction rate and the molar concentration of reactants. The order of a reaction is the sum of the powers of the concentration terms in the rate equation. First and Second Order Reactions: First order reactions depend on the concentration of a single reactant, while second order reactions involve the sum of powers of concentration terms equal to two. Zero Order Reactions: The rate of these reactions does not change with the concentration of reactants. Half-Life Period: The time required for the initial concentration of a reactant to reduce to half its value. Temperature Dependence: The rate of reaction generally increases with temperature. The Arrhenius equation relates the rate constant to the temperature. Collision and Transition State Theories: These theories explain how reactions occur and the factors influencing the rate of reactions. Activation Energy: The minimum energy required for a reaction to occur. It's an important factor in determining the rate of reaction. Catalysts: Substances that alter the rate of a reaction without undergoing permanent chemical change themselves. They provide an alternate pathway with lower activation energy for the reaction. This chapter is crucial for understanding the dynamics of how chemical reactions occur and the factors influencing their rates, which is essential knowledge for students studying chemistry at this level.

Exam Notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry Chapter – Surface Chemistry
The NCERT Class 12 Chemistry chapter on Surface Chemistry covers several important topics: Adsorption: The phenomenon where molecules of a substance are attracted and retained on a surface, resulting in a higher concentration of the molecules on the surface. Adsorbate: The substance that is adsorbed. Adsorbent: The substance which adsorbs. Desorption: The process of removing an adsorbed substance from a surface. Physical Adsorption: Adsorbate held by weak van der Waals forces, reversible. Chemical Adsorption (Chemisorption): Adsorbate held by chemical bond forces, generally irreversible​​. Catalysis: A substance that influences the rate of a chemical reaction without undergoing any permanent chemical change itself. Homogeneous Catalysis: The catalyst is present in the same phase as the reactants. Heterogeneous Catalysis: The catalyst is in a different phase than the reactants. Enzymes: Biological catalysts that are proteins and catalyze reactions in living systems​​. Colloidal Solutions: Intermediate between true solutions and suspensions. Colloidal particles range from 1 to 1000 nm in diameter. Types of colloidal systems based on disperse phase and dispersion medium, e.g., sols (solid in liquid), hydrosols (colloids in water), alcosols (colloids in alcohol). Lyophilic colloids (solvent-loving) and Lyophobic colloids (solvent-hating)​​. Preparation of Colloids: Lyophobic sols can be prepared by chemical methods (oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, double decomposition) and physical methods (exchange of solvent, excessive cooling). Lyophilic sols are easily prepared by warming the substance with a dispersion medium​​. Properties of Colloidal Solutions: Brownian movement: Random motion of colloidal particles. Tyndall effect: Scattering of light by colloidal particles making the path of light visible. Electrophoresis: Movement of colloidal particles under an electric field. Diffusion of colloidal particles from higher to lower concentration​​. Emulsions: A colloidal system where both the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium are liquids​​. This chapter is crucial for understanding the principles of surface phenomena, which are widely applicable in various fields such as catalysis, material science, and colloidal chemistry.

Exam notes with diagrams on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry – D Block Elements
### D-Block Elements: #### 1. Introduction: - D-block elements are transition elements found between s and p-blocks in the periodic table. - They exhibit characteristic properties like variable oxidation states, formation of colored compounds, complex formation, and catalytic activity. #### 2. Electronic Configuration: - Transition metals have partially filled d-orbitals. - Their general electronic configuration is [noble gas] (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2. #### 3. Physical Properties: - High melting and boiling points. - Good conductors of heat and electricity. - High density and hardness. #### 4. Atomic and Ionic Sizes: - Smaller atomic and ionic sizes compared to s-block elements. - Size increases from left to right within a period. #### 5. Magnetic Properties: - Most transition metals are paramagnetic. - Some exhibit ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic properties. #### 6. Ionization Enthalpy: - Generally higher than s-block elements. - Shows irregularities due to stable half-filled and completely filled d-orbitals. #### 7. Oxidation States: - Exhibit multiple oxidation states. - Common oxidation states are +2 and +3. - Actinides show a wider range of oxidation states. #### 8. Formation of Complex Compounds: - Transition metals form stable complex compounds due to their ability to accept and donate electrons. - Ligands are molecules or ions that donate electron pairs to form complexes. #### 9. Colored Compounds: - Transition metal compounds often exhibit vibrant colors due to d-d electronic transitions. - Color depends on the oxidation state and coordination environment. #### 10. Catalytic Properties: - Many transition metals act as catalysts in various chemical reactions. - They provide a surface for reactants to come together and react. #### 11. Alloy Formation: - Transition metals form alloys with other metals, enhancing their properties. - Examples include steel (iron and chromium) and bronze (copper and tin). #### 12. Specific Elements: - **Iron (Fe):** - Commonly found in steel. - Exhibits +2 and +3 oxidation states. - **Copper (Cu):** - Forms colorful compounds. - Used in electrical wiring and plumbing. - **Zinc (Zn):** - Often used as a sacrificial anode to prevent corrosion. - Mainly exhibits +2 oxidation state. These notes provide a general overview of the D-block elements. For more detailed information, refer to your NCERT Class 12 Chemistry textbook and class notes. Diagrams illustrating the electronic configurations, atomic sizes, and other concepts can be drawn based on the text and visual representations provided in your textbook.

Exam notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry – Haloalkenes and Haloarenes
Here's a concise set of exam notes on Haloalkenes and Haloarenes from NCERT Class 12 Chemistry, along with some diagrams where applicable: ### Haloalkenes and Haloarenes: #### 1. Introduction: - **Haloalkenes:** Organic compounds containing carbon-carbon double bond(s) and halogen atom(s). - **Haloarenes:** Organic compounds containing a halogen atom(s) directly attached to an aromatic ring. #### 2. Nomenclature: - Haloalkenes are named by adding the halogen name as a prefix to the alkene name. - Haloarenes are named by adding the halogen name as a prefix to the benzene ring name. #### 3. Structure: - **Haloalkenes:** Have a carbon-carbon double bond and one or more halogen atoms. - **Haloarenes:** Have a benzene ring with one or more directly attached halogen atoms. #### 4. Methods of Preparation: - **Haloalkenes:** - From alkenes: Addition of a halogen (Cl₂ or Br₂) in the presence of a solvent like CCl₄. - From alkanes: Dehydrohalogenation using a strong base (KOH). - **Haloarenes:** - From diazonium salts: Replacement of the diazonium group (ArN₂⁺) with a halide ion. #### 5. Physical Properties: - Haloalkenes and haloarenes are generally insoluble in water. - Higher boiling points compared to corresponding alkanes due to dipole-dipole interactions and London dispersion forces. #### 6. Chemical Properties: - **Haloalkenes:** - **Addition Reactions:** Halogenation, hydrohalogenation, hydration, and halohydrin formation. - **Elimination Reactions:** Dehydrohalogenation (formation of alkynes). - **Haloarenes:** - **Substitution Reactions:** Electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS) is the most common. Requires a Lewis acid catalyst. #### 7. Mechanism of Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution (EAS): - **Step 1:** Generation of electrophile (E⁺) by the reaction of a Lewis acid (FeBr₃ or AlCl₃) with a halogen. - **Step 2:** Attack of the electrophile on the aromatic ring, forming a sigma complex. - **Step 3:** Rearrangement of the sigma complex to regenerate the aromatic ring. #### 8. Polyhalogen Compounds: - Polyhalogen compounds have multiple halogen atoms in their structure. - Dichloromethane (CH₂Cl₂) and Freons (containing fluorine and chlorine) are examples. #### 9. Environmental Impact: - Freons contribute to ozone layer depletion. - Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) are persistent organic pollutants. #### 10. Uses: - Haloalkenes and haloarenes are used in the synthesis of various organic compounds. - Some serve as pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and solvents. These notes provide a general overview of Haloalkenes and Haloarenes. For a more in-depth understanding, refer to your NCERT Class 12 Chemistry textbook and class notes. Diagrams illustrating reaction mechanisms and structures can be drawn based on the visual representations provided in your textbook.

Exam notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry – Aldehydes
Here's a concise set of exam notes on Aldehydes from NCERT Class 12 Chemistry: ### Aldehydes: #### 1. Introduction: - Aldehydes are organic compounds containing the functional group –CHO. - Named with the suffix "-al." #### 2. Structure: - Central carbon atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and a carbonyl group (C=O). #### 3. Nomenclature: - Aldehydes are named by replacing the -e of the corresponding alkane with -al. - Common examples include formaldehyde (methanal) and acetaldehyde (ethanal). #### 4. Methods of Preparation: - **Oxidation of Primary Alcohols:** - Primary alcohols can be oxidized to form aldehydes using mild oxidizing agents like PCC (pyridinium chlorochromate). - **Ozonolysis of Alkenes:** - Alkenes can be ozonized, and the resulting ozonide can be reduced to form aldehydes. #### 5. Physical Properties: - Aldehydes have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons of similar size due to the polarity of the carbonyl group. #### 6. Chemical Properties: - **Reactivity of Carbonyl Group:** - The carbonyl group makes aldehydes susceptible to nucleophilic attack. - **Reduction:** - Aldehydes can be reduced to alcohols using reducing agents like NaBH₄. - **Oxidation:** - Aldehydes can be further oxidized to carboxylic acids under harsher conditions. - **Nucleophilic Addition Reactions:** - Aldehydes undergo nucleophilic addition reactions, forming addition products with nucleophiles. #### 7. Formation of Acetals: - Aldehydes react with alcohols to form acetals, which are useful in protecting carbonyl groups during synthetic reactions. #### 8. Uses: - Formaldehyde is used in embalming and resin production. - Acetaldehyde is used in the production of acetic acid and other chemicals. #### 9. Schiff's Base Formation: - Aldehydes react with primary amines to form Schiff's bases, which are important in organic synthesis. These notes provide a general overview of aldehydes. For a more detailed understanding, refer to your NCERT Class 12 Chemistry textbook and class notes. Diagrams illustrating reaction mechanisms and structures can be drawn based on the visual representations provided in your textbook.

Exam notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry – Ketones
Here's a concise set of exam notes on Ketones from NCERT Class 12 Chemistry: ### Ketones: #### 1. Introduction: - Ketones are organic compounds containing the functional group C=O, where the carbon is bonded to two other carbons. - Named with the suffix "-one." #### 2. Structure: - Central carbon atom bonded to two other carbon atoms and a carbonyl group (C=O). #### 3. Nomenclature: - Ketones are named by replacing the -e of the corresponding alkane with -one. - Common examples include acetone (propanone) and butanone (methyl ethyl ketone). #### 4. Methods of Preparation: - **Oxidation of Secondary Alcohols:** - Secondary alcohols can be oxidized to form ketones using oxidizing agents like chromic acid (CrO₃). - **Ozonolysis of Alkenes:** - Alkenes can be ozonized, and the resulting ozonide can be reduced to form ketones. #### 5. Physical Properties: - Ketones have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons of similar size due to the polarity of the carbonyl group. #### 6. Chemical Properties: - **Reactivity of Carbonyl Group:** - The carbonyl group makes ketones susceptible to nucleophilic attack. - **Reduction:** - Ketones can be reduced to secondary alcohols using reducing agents like NaBH₄. - **Oxidation:** - Ketones resist mild oxidation. Harsher conditions are required to convert them into carboxylic acids. - **Nucleophilic Addition Reactions:** - Ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions, forming addition products with nucleophiles. #### 7. Formation of Imine and Enamine: - Ketones react with primary amines to form imines, and with secondary amines to form enamines. These reactions are important in organic synthesis. #### 8. Cross Aldol Condensation: - Ketones participate in aldol condensation reactions, which involve the formation of β-hydroxy ketones. #### 9. Uses: - Acetone is widely used as a solvent and nail polish remover. - Various ketones are used in the production of pharmaceuticals and plastics. These notes provide a general overview of ketones. For a more detailed understanding, refer to your NCERT Class 12 Chemistry textbook and class notes. Diagrams illustrating reaction mechanisms and structures can be drawn based on the visual representations provided in your textbook.

Exam notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry – Carboxylic Acid
Here's a concise set of exam notes on Carboxylic Acids from NCERT Class 12 Chemistry: ### Carboxylic Acids: #### 1. Introduction: - Carboxylic acids are organic compounds containing the functional group -COOH. - Named with the suffix "-oic acid." #### 2. Structure: - Consists of a carbonyl group (C=O) and a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the same carbon atom, forming the carboxyl group (-COOH). #### 3. Nomenclature: - Carboxylic acids are named by replacing the -e of the corresponding alkane with -oic acid. - Common examples include methanoic acid (formic acid) and ethanoic acid (acetic acid). #### 4. Methods of Preparation: - **Oxidation of Primary Alcohols and Aldehydes:** - Primary alcohols can be oxidized to carboxylic acids using oxidizing agents like KMnO₄. - Aldehydes can also be oxidized to carboxylic acids. - **Hydrolysis of Nitriles:** - Nitriles can be hydrolyzed to form carboxylic acids in the presence of acid or base. - **Carboxylation of Grignard Reagents:** - Grignard reagents (RMgX) react with carbon dioxide to form carboxylic acids. #### 5. Physical Properties: - Higher boiling points compared to aldehydes and ketones due to hydrogen bonding. #### 6. Chemical Properties: - **Acidic Nature:** - Carboxylic acids are weak acids, donating a proton (H⁺). - React with bases to form carboxylate ions. - **Reactions with Metals:** - React with metals to form carboxylate salts and liberate hydrogen gas. - **Esterification:** - React with alcohols to form esters and water. - **Decarboxylation:** - Loss of CO₂ from a carboxylic acid, often under heating or in the presence of a catalyst. #### 7. Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids: - **Esters:** - Formed by the reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohols in the presence of acid or base. - **Amides:** - Formed by the reaction of carboxylic acids with ammonia or amines. - **Anhydrides:** - Formed by the condensation of two carboxylic acid molecules, releasing a water molecule. #### 8. Uses: - Carboxylic acids are used in the food industry as preservatives (e.g., citric acid). - Some carboxylic acids are used as pharmaceuticals and in the synthesis of various chemicals. These notes provide a general overview of carboxylic acids. For a more detailed understanding, refer to your NCERT Class 12 Chemistry textbook and class notes. Diagrams illustrating reaction mechanisms and structures can be drawn based on the visual representations provided in your textbook.

Exam notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry – Alcohols
Exam notes on Alcohols from NCERT Class 12 Chemistry: ### Alcohols: #### 1. Introduction: - Alcohols are organic compounds containing the hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to a carbon atom. - Named with the suffix "-ol." #### 2. Structure: - Consists of a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to a carbon atom. #### 3. Classification: - **Primary Alcohols:** - The carbon to which the hydroxyl group is attached is bonded to one other carbon atom. - **Secondary Alcohols:** - The carbon to which the hydroxyl group is attached is bonded to two other carbon atoms. - **Tertiary Alcohols:** - The carbon to which the hydroxyl group is attached is bonded to three other carbon atoms. #### 4. Nomenclature: - Alcohols are named by replacing the -e of the corresponding alkane with -ol. - Common examples include methanol, ethanol, and propanol. #### 5. Methods of Preparation: - **Hydration of Alkenes:** - Alkenes react with water in the presence of acid to form alcohols. - **Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones:** - Aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to form primary and secondary alcohols, respectively. - **Hydroboration-Oxidation of Alkenes:** - Alkenes react with boron compounds followed by oxidation to form alcohols. #### 6. Physical Properties: - Alcohols have higher boiling points compared to hydrocarbons of similar size due to hydrogen bonding. #### 7. Chemical Properties: - **Acidic Nature:** - Alcohols can act as weak acids, donating a proton (H⁺) to a base. - **Reaction with Active Metals:** - React with active metals like sodium to liberate hydrogen gas. - **Esterification:** - Reaction with carboxylic acids to form esters. - **Oxidation:** - Primary alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes and then to carboxylic acids. - Secondary alcohols can be oxidized to ketones. #### 8. Uses: - **Methanol:** - Used as a solvent and antifreeze. - **Ethanol:** - Commonly used in alcoholic beverages. - Used as a solvent and in the pharmaceutical industry. - **Glycerol:** - Used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. - Forms the backbone of triglycerides in fats. #### 9. Dehydration of Alcohols: - Alcohols can undergo dehydration to form alkenes in the presence of an acid catalyst. #### 10. Lucas Test: - Used to distinguish between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols based on the reaction rate with Lucas reagent (HCl and ZnCl₂). These notes provide a general overview of alcohols. For a more detailed understanding, refer to your NCERT Class 12 Chemistry textbook and class notes. Diagrams illustrating reaction mechanisms and structures can be drawn based on the visual representations provided in your textbook.

Exam notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry – Phenols
A concise set of exam notes on Phenols from NCERT Class 12 Chemistry: ### Phenols: #### 1. Introduction: - Phenols are aromatic compounds containing the hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to a benzene ring. - Named with the suffix "-ol." #### 2. Structure: - Consists of a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to a benzene ring. #### 3. Nomenclature: - Phenols are named as derivatives of benzene with the suffix -ol. - Common examples include phenol (hydroxybenzene) and cresol. #### 4. Methods of Preparation: - **From Benzene Disulfonic Acid:** - Benzene disulfonic acid is treated with sodium hydroxide to obtain phenols. - **From Haloarenes:** - Haloarenes can be treated with a strong base like sodium hydroxide to form phenols. - **From Cumene:** - Cumene (isopropylbenzene) can be oxidized to produce phenol and acetone. #### 5. Physical Properties: - Phenols have higher boiling points compared to hydrocarbons of similar size due to hydrogen bonding. #### 6. Chemical Properties: - **Acidity:** - Phenols are weak acids and can donate a proton (H⁺). - React with bases to form phenoxide ions. - **Reaction with Metals:** - React with metals like sodium to liberate hydrogen gas. - **Reaction with Haloalkanes:** - Phenols react with haloalkanes in the presence of a base to form ethers. - **Oxidation:** - Phenols can be oxidized to form quinones, which are important in dye production. #### 7. Uses: - **Antiseptics and Disinfectants:** - Phenols, such as phenol itself, are used as antiseptics and disinfectants. - **Preservatives:** - Used in the preservation of wood. - **Pharmaceuticals:** - Some phenols have applications in pharmaceuticals. #### 8. Reimer-Tiemann Reaction: - Benzene reacts with chloroform in the presence of a base to form salicylaldehyde. #### 9. Kolbe's Reaction: - Phenol reacts with sodium hydroxide and carbon dioxide to form sodium salicylate. #### 10. Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: - Phenols undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions due to the presence of the electron-rich benzene ring. #### 11. Acidic Nature of Phenols: - The presence of the hydroxyl group in the benzene ring enhances the acidity of phenols compared to alcohols. These notes provide a general overview of phenols. For a more detailed understanding, refer to your NCERT Class 12 Chemistry textbook and class notes. Diagrams illustrating reaction mechanisms and structures can be drawn based on the visual representations provided in your textbook.

Exam notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry – Amines
A concise set of exam notes on Amines from NCERT Class 12 Chemistry: ### Amines: #### 1. Introduction: - Amines are organic compounds containing a nitrogen atom bonded to hydrogen atoms or alkyl/aryl groups. - Named with the suffix "-amine." #### 2. Classification: - **Primary Amines:** - Nitrogen is bonded to one alkyl or aryl group and two hydrogen atoms. - **Secondary Amines:** - Nitrogen is bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups and one hydrogen atom. - **Tertiary Amines:** - Nitrogen is bonded to three alkyl or aryl groups. #### 3. Structure: - The basic structure is R-NH₂ for primary amines, R₂NH for secondary amines, and R₃N for tertiary amines. #### 4. Nomenclature: - Amines are named by adding the prefix amino- or the suffix -amine to the name of the parent compound. - Common examples include methylamine, ethylamine, and aniline. #### 5. Methods of Preparation: - **Reduction of Nitro Compounds:** - Nitro compounds can be reduced to amines using reducing agents like Sn/HCl. - **Reduction of Nitriles:** - Nitriles can be reduced to amines using reducing agents like LiAlH₄. - **Gabriel Phthalimide Synthesis:** - Phthalimide reacts with alkyl halides to form N-substituted phthalimides, which are then hydrolyzed to produce primary amines. #### 6. Physical Properties: - Amines have higher boiling points compared to hydrocarbons of similar size due to hydrogen bonding. #### 7. Chemical Properties: - **Basicity:** - Amines are basic due to the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen. - React with acids to form ammonium salts. - **Acylation Reaction:** - Amines react with acyl chlorides or anhydrides to form amides. - **Diazotization:** - Primary aromatic amines can react with nitrous acid (HNO₂) to form diazonium salts. #### 8. Hofmann Bromamide Reaction: - Primary amides react with bromine in the presence of sodium hydroxide to form primary amines. #### 9. Gabriel Synthesis: - Reaction of phthalimide with diethyl bromomalonate followed by hydrolysis yields primary amines. #### 10. Importance of Amines: - Amines are essential in the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals and dyes. - Some amines are used as corrosion inhibitors. These notes provide a general overview of amines. For a more detailed understanding, refer to your NCERT Class 12 Chemistry textbook and class notes. Diagrams illustrating reaction mechanisms and structures can be drawn based on the visual representations provided in your textbook.

Exam notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry – Classification of Amines
Exam notes on the Classification of Amines from NCERT Class 12 Chemistry: ### Classification of Amines: #### 1. Introduction: - **Amines:** Organic compounds containing a nitrogen atom bonded to hydrogen atoms or alkyl/aryl groups. - Classified based on the number of hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl or aryl groups attached to the nitrogen atom. #### 2. Classification: - **Primary Amines (RNH₂):** - Nitrogen is bonded to one alkyl or aryl group and two hydrogen atoms. - General structure: R-NH₂. - **Secondary Amines (R₂NH):** - Nitrogen is bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups and one hydrogen atom. - General structure: R₂NH. - **Tertiary Amines (R₃N):** - Nitrogen is bonded to three alkyl or aryl groups. - General structure: R₃N. #### 3. Aromatic Amines: - Amines in which the nitrogen atom is part of an aromatic ring. - Examples include aniline (C₆H₅NH₂). #### 4. Aliphatic Amines: - Amines in which the nitrogen atom is part of an aliphatic chain. - Aliphatic amines can further be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of substituents attached to nitrogen. #### 5. Heterocyclic Amines: - Amines in which the nitrogen atom is part of a heterocyclic ring. - Example: Pyridine (C₅H₅N). #### 6. Importance of Classification: - **Chemical Reactivity:** - Different classes of amines exhibit different chemical reactivities. - Primary amines are more reactive than secondary amines, and secondary amines are more reactive than tertiary amines. - **Boiling Points:** - Generally, the boiling points increase with an increase in the number of alkyl or aryl groups attached to the nitrogen atom. - Tertiary amines have the highest boiling points among the three classes. #### 7. Basicity: - **Basic Nature:** - Amines act as bases due to the presence of a lone pair of electrons on nitrogen. - React with acids to form ammonium salts. - **Effect of Alkyl Substituents:** - In general, the basicity decreases in the order: RNH₂ > R₂NH > R₃N. - Alkyl groups are electron-donating, and their presence decreases the availability of the lone pair on nitrogen. #### 8. Applications: - **Pharmaceuticals:** - Many drugs and medicines contain amine functional groups. - The classification of amines is crucial in drug design. - **Dyes:** - Amines are used in the production of dyes. - The type of amine affects the color and properties of the dye. These notes provide a general overview of the classification of amines. For a more detailed understanding, refer to your NCERT Class 12 Chemistry textbook and class notes. Diagrams illustrating structures and chemical reactions can be drawn based on the visual representations provided in your textbook.

Exam notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry – Method of preparation of Amines
Exam notes on the Methods of Preparation of Amines from NCERT Class 12 Chemistry: ### Methods of Preparation of Amines: #### 1. **Reduction of Nitro Compounds:** - **Reaction:** Nitro compounds (R-NO₂) are reduced to amines (R-NH₂). - **Catalyst:** Typically, reducing agents like tin (Sn) and concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) or iron (Fe) with hydrochloric acid. - **Example:** [ R-NO_2 + 6H rightarrow R-NH_2 + 2H_2O ] #### 2. **Reduction of Nitriles:** - **Reaction:** Nitriles (RC≡N) are reduced to primary amines (R-CH₂-NH₂). - **Catalyst:** Reducing agents like lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH₄) or hydrogen with a metal catalyst (e.g., Raney nickel). - **Example:** [ RC equiv N + 3H_2 rightarrow R-CH_2-NH_2 ] #### 3. **Gabriel Phthalimide Synthesis:** - **Reaction:** Phthalimide reacts with an alkyl halide to form N-substituted phthalimide, which is then hydrolyzed to produce primary amines. - **Example:** [ C_6H_4(CO)NH_2 + R-X rightarrow C_6H_4(CO)NHR + HX ] #### 4. **Reduction of Amides:** - **Reaction:** Amides (RC(O)NR₂) are reduced to amines (R₂NH or R₂NH₂). - **Catalyst:** Reducing agents like lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH₄). - **Example:** [ R-C(O)NR_2 + 4H rightarrow R_2NH + R-NH_2 + 2H_2O ] #### 5. **Reductive Amination:** - **Reaction:** Aldehydes or ketones are treated with ammonia or a primary amine in the presence of a reducing agent. - **Catalyst:** Commonly, reducing agents like sodium cyanoborohydride (NaBH₃CN). - **Example:** [ R-CHO + NH_3 rightarrow R-CH_2-NH_2 ] #### 6. **Hofmann Degradation:** - **Reaction:** Amides are treated with bromine and sodium hydroxide to produce a primary amine with one fewer carbon atom. - **Example:** [ R-C(O)NH_2 + Br_2 + NaOH rightarrow R-NH_2 + NaBr + H_2O ] #### 7. **Reduction of Cyanides:** - **Reaction:** Cyanides (RC≡N) are reduced to primary amines (R-CH₂-NH₂). - **Catalyst:** Reducing agents like lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH₄). - **Example:** [ RC equiv N + 4H rightarrow R-CH_2-NH_2 ] #### 8. **From Grignard Reagents:** - **Reaction:** Alkyl or aryl magnesium halides (Grignard reagents) react with nitrogen-containing compounds. - **Example:** [ R-MgX + NH_4Cl rightarrow R-NH_2 + MgClX ] #### 9. **Reduction of Oximes:** - **Reaction:** Oximes are reduced to amines. - **Catalyst:** Reducing agents like sodium amalgam or hydrogen with a metal catalyst. - **Example:** [ R-C=NOH + 2H rightarrow R-NH_2 + H_2O ] #### 10. **From Alcohols:** - **Reaction:** Alcohols react with ammonia or amines in the presence of a dehydrating agent. - **Catalyst:** Acidic dehydrating agents like zinc chloride (ZnCl₂). - **Example:** [ R-OH + NH_3 rightarrow R-NH_2 + H_2O ] These methods provide a variety of routes for the synthesis of amines, and the choice of method depends on the starting materials and desired amine products. Understanding these methods is crucial for the synthesis and functionalization of amines in organic chemistry.

Exam notes on NCERT Class 12 Chemistry – Biomolecules
Exam notes on Biomolecules from NCERT Class 12 Chemistry: ### Biomolecules: #### 1. **Introduction:** - **Definition:** Biomolecules are organic molecules that are involved in the maintenance and metabolic processes of living organisms. - Four major classes: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids, and Lipids. #### 2. **Carbohydrates:** - **Definition:** Organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. - **Types:** Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose), Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose), Polysaccharides (starch, cellulose). #### 3. **Proteins:** - **Definition:** Complex macromolecules made up of amino acid residues linked by peptide bonds. - **Functions:** Enzymes, structural support, transport, defense, hormones. - **Structure Levels:** Primary, Secondary (α-helix, β-sheet), Tertiary, Quaternary. #### 4. **Nucleic Acids:** - **Types:** DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), RNA (Ribonucleic Acid). - **Functions:** Storage and transmission of genetic information. - **Components:** Nucleotides (sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base). #### 5. **Lipids:** - **Types:** Fats, Phospholipids, Steroids. - **Functions:** Energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, hormones. - **Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats.** #### 6. **Enzymes:** - **Definition:** Biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions. - **Specificity:** Substrate-specific enzymes. - **Cofactors and Coenzymes:** Essential for enzyme activity. #### 7. **Hormones:** - **Definition:** Signaling molecules that regulate physiological and behavioral processes. - **Examples:** Insulin, adrenaline, estrogen, testosterone. #### 8. **Vitamins:** - **Definition:** Essential organic compounds required in small amounts for normal growth and metabolism. - **Fat-Soluble (A, D, E, K) vs. Water-Soluble (B complex, C) Vitamins.** #### 9. **Nucleic Acid Replication:** - **DNA Replication:** Semi-conservative process involving DNA polymerase. - **RNA Transcription:** RNA synthesis from DNA template. - **Translation:** Protein synthesis from mRNA template using ribosomes. #### 10. **ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate):** - **Role:** Energy currency of the cell. - **Structure:** Adenine, ribose, three phosphate groups. - **Energy Release during Hydrolysis.** #### 11. **Carbohydrate Metabolism:** - **Glycolysis:** Breakdown of glucose into pyruvate. - **Krebs Cycle:** Citric acid cycle producing NADH and FADH₂. - **Electron Transport Chain:** ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation. #### 12. **Protein Synthesis:** - **Transcription:** DNA to mRNA. - **Translation:** mRNA to protein. #### 13. **Biological Membranes:** - **Phospholipid Bilayer:** Structural component. - **Fluid Mosaic Model:** Proteins embedded in the lipid bilayer. #### 14. **Amino Acids:** - **Structure:** Central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, side chain. - **Classification:** Essential vs. Non-essential amino acids. #### 15. **Polysaccharides:** - **Starch:** Storage form of glucose in plants. - **Glycogen:** Storage form of glucose in animals. - **Cellulose:** Structural component in plant cell walls. These notes provide a general overview of the major biomolecules and their functions in living organisms. For a more detailed understanding, refer to your NCERT Class 12 Chemistry textbook and class notes. Diagrams illustrating structures and processes can be drawn based on the visual representations provided in your textbook.

Unit I: Solutions

Unit II: Electrochemistry

Unit III: Chemical Kinetics

Unit IV: d and f Block Elements

Unit V: Coordination Compounds

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